以色列历史/新国家面临的挑战
< 以色列历史
以色列在 1949 年至 1967 年期间面临许多问题。阿拉伯城镇的种族清洗暂时搁置了以色列与巴勒斯坦之间的冲突，但来自愤怒的阿拉伯国家的贫困犹太难民造成了全新的种族问题，而深陷分化的政府也几乎无法运作。
在 1940 年代，伊拉克、利比亚、埃及、叙利亚和也门发生的针对犹太人的反犹太暴乱中，超过一千名犹太人丧生，这引发了犹太人从阿拉伯国家大规模外流的浪潮。 回归法赋予所有犹太人合法移民以色列并立即成为以色列公民的权利，如果他们选择这样做。唯一的例外是内政部长认为对国家公共卫生、福利或安全构成威胁的人。
回归法直到 1950 年才写成，但在宣布独立后的几个小时内，olim（新移民）蜂拥而至。头六个月有 100,000 人，然后 1949 年超过 250,000 人。[1]
1941 年 6 月：逃离巴勒斯坦的耶路撒冷大穆夫提煽动了拉希德·阿里领导的亲纳粹政变。这引发了巴格达的骚乱和暴行。犹太人已经在伊拉克生活了 2700 年。在警察和军队的默许下，伊拉克武装暴徒袭击了 180 名犹太人，并造成近 1000 人受伤。1946-49 年发生了更多暴发。在 1948 年以色列建国后，犹太复国主义成为一项罪名。1950 年，伊拉克犹太人被允许在一年内离开该国，前提是他们放弃公民身份。1951 年，从伊拉克移民的犹太人的财产被冻结，对剩下的犹太人施加了经济限制。
从 1949 年到 1951 年，犹太人从伊拉克被撤离，名为以斯拉行动和尼希米行动。另外 20,000 人通过伊朗偷渡。1952 年，伊拉克政府禁止犹太人移民。在被控在巴格达美国新闻处办公室投掷炸弹的虚假指控下，犹太人被公开绞死。
1944 年，叙利亚从法国独立后，新政府禁止犹太人移民巴勒斯坦。犹太学校的希伯来语教学受到严格限制。袭击事件升级，针对犹太人企业的抵制行动也随之而来。1947 年，在巴勒斯坦分治后，阿勒颇的阿拉伯暴徒摧毁了这个拥有 2500 年历史的社区。数十名犹太人丧生。超过 200 个住宅、商店和犹太教堂被毁。数千名犹太人非法逃离叙利亚前往以色列。犹太人是唯一一个护照上标明宗教的少数民族。行动自由受到严格限制。试图逃离的犹太人要么面临死刑，要么面临苦役监禁。犹太人不能担任政府或银行工作。犹太人不能获得电话或驾照，也不能购买房产。犹太人银行账户被冻结。大马士革的犹太公墓被铺成机场路。犹太学校被关闭并移交给了穆斯林。
据说在拉姆拉发生了强奸案。我可以原谅强奸，但我不能原谅其他我认为更糟糕的行为。当他们进入一个城镇，强行从手指上取下戒指，从脖子上取下珠宝时，那是一件非常严重的事情……许多人对此有罪。—摩西·本托夫，记录于 1948 年 7 月 4 日的内阁会议纪要中。
在全世界，从缅甸到美国，犹太人被外交官和摩萨德特工移民到以色列——通常作为经济交易的一部分，价格昂贵。这些早期的移民运动没有区分塞法迪和阿拉伯等民族，只关注每个国家犹太人口的政治和经济状况，并强调陷入困境的社区。例如，在摩洛哥，犹太机构发现了一个由于沙眼而全部失明的村庄。[2] 有些国家根本不想让他们的犹太人离开。在这种情况下，摩萨德安排了秘密的走私行动，使用货船、骆驼和商队。然而，摩萨德也从犹太复国主义机构那里提取了每位新olim的利润，并习惯于将每艘船都装满到最大容量，并提前将olim带进来。到 1952 年，它被解散，取而代之的是正式的特工处。[3]
来自欧洲，包括罗马尼亚和匈牙利的人，完全没有开拓精神。他们期待着奢华的生活，只会在城市里生活。[他们] 不学习语言。... 叙利亚人、伊拉克人、伊朗人和的黎波里人：他们中的大多数会说希伯来语，因为他们属于开拓性的犹太复国主义运动（尤其是伊拉克人和伊朗人）。他们的愿望是住在土地上，在某些情况下甚至住在集体农场里。—露丝·克利格，总理办公室报告
对以色列新国家的移民人数上升到最大估计容量的四倍。遭受暴行的幸存者来到以色列港口，却被卸到恶劣的营地，具有讽刺意味的是，他们用与纳粹集中营相似的 DDT 喷雾进行除虱处理。医疗援助不存在，地板上覆盖着人类排泄物，食物份量很少——有时只有面包、牛奶和一些橄榄——居民在营地里被关押了几个月。一旦移民离开营地，集体农场和其他农业体系也被申请者和受训者压垮。当营地于 1949 年关闭时，olim被分散到以色列各地为自己的食物工作。[4]
但以色列同样没有为从也门的另一批olim做好准备，魔毯行动；一位医生描述了 12,000 名饥饿的移民，其中许多人赤身裸体或半裸，挤在一个本应容纳 500 人的“中转站”，甚至没有帐篷来保护他们免受恶劣天气的侵袭。这不仅反映了aliyah系统化的缓慢进展，也反映了也门的状况，那里的儿童死亡率估计为 80%，大多数人口一直生病，幸存下来的儿童很快就与其他犹太人结婚，以防止他们被苏丹绑架并改信伊斯兰教。[5] 虽然以色列并不比也门立即好转，但犹太复国主义机构很快开始讨论对也门人的未来进行投资，旨在改善识字率、妇女权利、健康和社会状况。犹太机构的一份小册子上写着：“我们不能让他们成为……我们社会的擦鞋匠。”[6]
即使在多年后，人们对魔毯行动结果的看法也各不相同。
有些也门儿童能背诵整章圣经，而我，一个希伯来语老师，却像他们不懂希伯来语一样教他们，因为他们的口音与我不同。我教他们什么？——猫坐在垫子上。我伤害了他们。今天，我觉得这是一场灾难，不仅是对移民，而且是对整个社区都是一场灾难。—拉比卡尔曼·卡哈纳[7]
世界上从来没有过如此规模的教育事业……为他们创造了一个完整的教育体系，从无到有，而且是在经济困难时期，在国际斗争和对国家生存的军事威胁之中。这就是它！—巴鲁赫·本·耶胡达博士[8]
1948 年成立的政府包括来自犹太复国主义运动各个部分、宗教派别和反犹太复国主义者的代表。为了确保这种团结，世俗领导人不得不做出让步，保证犹太教法律的某些方面将被纳入新政府，例如：遵守安息日和饮食规则。
1949 年首次提出了宪法。左翼人士反对，理由是该文件没有宣布该国的基础是社会主义。宗教派别担心，书面宪法将巩固世俗犹太复国主义的价值观。他们认为宪法没有必要，因为《托拉》本质上就是宪法。
美国官员担心以色列可能不是民主国家，因为许多犹太人来自苏联的一部分，并且这些犹太人中很大一部分与社会主义政党和意识形态有关。美国决策者担心以色列会成为苏联的盟友——尤其是那些一开始就对犹太复国主义持敌意的决策者。苏联是联合国通过分割决议的关键。苏联也是继美国之后第二个承认以色列的国家。
以色列政府推行了一些社会主义经济政策：国有化主要机构——航空公司——电话公司——公用事业。但以色列致力于西方民主阵营，并拒绝了共产主义。结果，苏联随后转向以色列，在政治、经济和军事上支持以色列的敌人。
A. Before UN partition vote, Golda Meir was sent by Ben-Gurion to met with
King Abdullah
i. they agreed Jews would not object to Adbullah annexing the area
allocated for the Arab State
ii. Meir met Abdullah in Amman with the hope that Jordan would not
enter the impending war
iii. Abdullah told Meir he allied himself with the other Arab states
B. Jordan in Jerusalem
i. Jordan heavily subsidized by British government and its army
ii. Arab Legion was trained, supported and led by British officers
iii. this Arab force was the one that the Jews were not able to expel
during the War of Independence
iv. Transjordan was in control of a large amount of territory west of
the Jordan river AKA the West Bank and half of the city of
Jerusalem including the Old City
a. Abdullah made it clear that the Jews were not allowed access to
holy places like the Kotel
b. UN, Vatican, and other who had expressed concern as to the future
of Jerusalem and with it the freedom of all to worship there soon
did not keep interest
v. Abdullah's decision to annex parts of Palestine that he conquered
angered fellow Arabs
a. Abdullah ignored this and renamed the area the Hashemite Kingdom
of Jordan after his family the Hashemites
vi. Israel doubled its poplation through immigration as Jordan did the
same by unifying the territory on both sides of the Jordan River
C. Interesting to Note
i. on May 11, 1949 Israel was admitted as the 59th member on the UN
ii. Jordan's application was vetoed by the Soviet Union two years
earlier because the Russians believed Abdullah was a British puppet
A. declared on Dec. 9, 1945 by the Arab League Council
i. stated "Jewish products and manufactured goods shall be considered
undesirable to the Arab Countries."
ii. this is before Israel was declared a State and even before the UN
voted for partition
iii. Jewish was the term used as opposed to Zionist
B. The boycott had three categories
1. boycott prohibits direct trade between Israel and the Arab nations
2. companies doing business in Israel
3. blacklisting of firms that trade with other companies doing business
in Israel
a. Coca-Cola was sold in Israel so Arabs countries boycotted the
company
b. Pepsi stayed away from Israel and continued to do business in
Israel
C. Economics in Israel
i. at this time Israel did not have the resources to easily and quickly
absorb so many immigrants
ii. years later many immigrants who grew up in ma'abarot -camps of tin
shacks and tents- harbored resentment towards the government for
its failure to ease their transition
D. 1977 US Congress Prohibited US Companies From Cooperating With The Arab
Boycott
i. President Carter
ii. Carter mentioned that the boycott affected Jewish members of the
American society and that it was the antagonist to free trade
E. US Foreign Policy
i. Truman replaced by Eisenhower
a. after 1948 War, Truman began a modest foreign aid program for
Israel, Ike quickly reduced that amount
b. Ike used the aid to extract concessions from the Israelis
throughout his term
-for example, 1955 payments were suspended to force Israel to
stop work on a hydroelectric project on the Jordan river
c. Ike refused to sell weapons to Israel
d. when Israel formally moved the foreign ministry and other
government institutions to the capital, Jerusalem, Eisenhower
criticized the decision and refused to move the US Embassy from Tel
Aviv - where it still remains!! Petition
F. Eisenhower's New Middle East Policy Would Influence American
Decision-Makers For The Remainder Of The Century
a. Ike decided that the Middle East was vital to American security
interests because of the oil reserves
b. Ike also worried about the spread of Communism in Middle East
G. Building of Alliances in the Middle East
a. Baghdad Pact 1955 - pro-Western regimes in Turkey and Iraq
b. later that year Great Britain, Iran, and Pakistan joined creating
the Middle East Treaty Organization which later became the Central
Treaty Organization
c. US wanted Egypt to become part of the Alliance
-US prepared to offer Nasser arms and aid if his country joined
-British opposed to this because of Suez
d. Nasser actively opposed the alliance and began undermining it
e. US did not join the Baghdad Pact
f. Aswan Dam - 1955 Eisenhower offered to help Egypt build the Aswan
Dam
-Nasser felt the project would give outsiders too much influence
over his economy
-eventually Nasser decided to accept the offer in July 1956
-July 19 US formally withdrew its offer
g. a few days after Nasser learned of US withdrawal, Nasser nationalized
the Suez Canal
-France and Great Britain were furious
-US condemned Nasser but cautioned its allies against military
reaction
A. Egypt Closed the Suez Canal to Israeli Shipping After Signing the
Armistice Agreement
i. August 9, 1949 UN Mixed Armistice Commission upheld Israel's
complaint that Egypt was illegally blocking the canal
ii. September 1, 1967 the Security Council ordered Egypt to open the
canal to Israeli shipping
iii. Egypt refused to comply
B. Egypt "attacks" Israel
i. 1955 Nasser began to import weapons from the Soviet Bloc to build
his arsenal for a confrontation with Israel
ii. in the short-term Nasser used a different tactic announced on
August 31, 1955 "Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the
disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam, and they will cleanse
the land of Palestine... There will be no peace on Israel's border
because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death."
iii. Egypt sent fedayeeh - Arab terrorists - trained and equipped by
Egyptian Intelligence to engage in hostile action on the border
and infiltrate Israel to commit acts of sabotage and murder
iv. the fedayeen mostly operated from bases in Jordan so that Jordan
would feel the brunt of Israel's retaliation
v. these terrorist attacks violated the armistice agreement yet the UN
Security Council condemned Israel for its counter-attacks
vi. 1953 Israel had created a secret unit to retaliate against the
fedayeen
-it infiltrated their bases and struck both preemptively and
vengefully
-Unit 101, as it was called, was led by Ariel Sharon
vii. Egyptian blockade of Straits of Tiran - Israel's only supply route
with Asia
viii. Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal in July, 1956
ix. October 25, 1956 Egypt signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and
Jordan which put Nasser in command of the three armies
B. Canal Plans
i. British and French not happy with Nasser over situation
ii. the French had grown close to new Israeli government; politically,
militarily, and diplomatically
-French became Israel's primary source of arms for about a decade
and provided Israel key elements that let Israel develop a nuclear
capability
-British still allied with Jordan and not friendly with Israel
iii. French decided that they could use Israel's fear of Egyptian
aggression and the continuing blockade as a pretext for their own
strike against Nasser
iv. British decided to join in
v. the three countries agreed on a plan whereby Israel would land
paratroopers near the Canal and send its armor across the Sinai
dessert. The British and French troops would be deployed to
"protect" the canal
vi. October 29, 1956 Israel attacked Egypt eighth days before the US
presidential election
vii. more than 100,000 Israeli soldiers were mobilized in less than 72
hours and the air force was fully operational within 43.
Paratroopers landed in the Sinai and Israeli forces quickly
advanced unopposed toward the Suez Canal then halted in compliance
with the demands of England and France
viii. the Egyptians ignored the Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw
because they were asked to retreat from the Sinai to the west
bank of the canal, whereas the Israelis were permitted to stay
only 10 miles east of the canal
ix. US sponsored a Security Resolution calling for an immediate Israeli
withdrawal on October 30
x. England and France vetoed the resolution
xi. the next day France and England launched air operations, bombing
Egyptian airfields near Suez. Israeli forces continued fighting
after this. The IDF's armored corps swept across the dessert
capturing the entire Sinai peninsula by November 5
xii. Nov. 5 British and French paratroops landed near Port Said and
amphibious ships dropped commandos onshore. British troops
captured Port Said and advanced within 25 miles of Suez city
before the British government abruptly agreed to a cease-fire
xiii. by the end of the fighting, Israel had the Gaza Strip and had
advanced as far as Sharm al-Sheikh along the Red Sea
ivx. a total of 231 Israeli soldiers died in the fighting
A. US/Kennedy
i. main source of weapons to Israel was France
ii. US encouragement of 3rd party arms suppliers that had enabled
Israel to meet its defense needs
iii. US was supplying weapons directly like recoilless rifles to
Israel, but secretly
iv. not until 1962 did Israel receive its first major weapons system
from US
a. Kennedy agreed to sell HAWK anti-aircraft missiles
b. state department opposed this but Kennedy justified this because
Nasser had been supplied long-range bombers from the Soviet
Union
c. the HAWK system required IDF soldiers to be given extensive
training in the US and that spare parts be supplied to Israel
B. Johnson
i. almost immediately after inheriting the presidency, Johnson was
pressured by Israelis and lobbyists to supply Israel with tanks and
planes
ii. 1964 Johnson Administration began to consider a tank sale, but the
Joint Chiefs of Staff reported that Israel had no need for tanks
a. they felt US should place a higher priority on restraining the
flow of weapons to the Middle East
b. Joint Chiefs of Staff said that if it was decided to sel tanks
then they should only be sold as replacements for obsolete tanks
and that they be supplied discreetly
c. this became impossible when...
iii. 1965 is was revealed that US had been indirectly supplying arms to
Israel via West Germany since 1962 under the terms of a secret
agreement made 1960
a. Arab Nations resounded to this by threatening to recognize East
Germany and by pressuring West Germany to halt sales
b. US stepped in to fulfill the remainder of the contract
iv. US policy was of even-handedness
a. it had a similar sale of tanks to Jordan
b. the administration did not supply large amounts of weapons to
either the Arabs or Israelis
c. Johnson did not want to provide one state with a military
advantage over another
v. February 1966 the US State Department announced the sale of 200
Patton Tanks to Israel
vi. then in May it announced a new agreement for Skyhawk jet bombers to
be supplied to Israel
a. first sale of offensive weapons to Israel
b. public acknowledgement that US was willing and actually providing
the weapons
A. 1963 Palestine Liberation Organization, started by the Arab League
i. the Palestine Liberation Army was established by Ahmed Shukeiri when
he was asked to wage a terror campaign
ii. the PLO has different groups like
a. Fatah - Yasir Arafat's group
b. the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
iii. 1964 during a meeting for the first Palestinian Congress the PLO
formally came into being as an effort to give a voice to the
Palestinians living in refugee camps in Lebanon
iv. Nasser had some influence over these factions
v. the key articles laid out in the Palestine National Charter or
Palestinian Covenant called for the destruction of Israel
B. Fighting
i. 1965 35 raids conducted in Israel
ii. 1966 41
iii. first 4 months of 1967 37 attacks
iv. targets of these attacks were always civilians
v. the majority of the attacks were from Palestinian guerillas entering
Israel from Jordan, the Gaza Strip, and Lebanon
a. the orders for these attacks were coming from Cairo and Damascus
b. Nasser's objective was to harass the Israelis and to undermine
King Hussein's regime in Jordan
vi. Hussein viewed the PLO as a direct and indirect threat to his power
a. he closed the PLO offices in Jerusalem in 1967 and arrested many
of the group's members
A. Syria became more hostile after the breakup of the United Arab Republic
i. the Syrian army used the Golan Heights, being 3,000 feet above the
Galilee to shell Israeli farms and villages
ii. in 1965 and 1966 Syria's attacks gew so frequent that children
living in Kibutzim in the Huleh Valley had to sleep in bomb
shelters
B. Israel repeatedly protested Syria's bombardment to the UN Mixed
Armistice Commission
i. the UN Mixed Armistice Commission was in charge of policing the
Armistice
ii. nothing was done to stop Syrian aggression
iii. Israel instead was condemned by the United Nations when it
retaliated
C. Retailiation
i. April 7, 1967 Israeli planes shot down 6 Syrian fighter planes -
these Syrian planes MiGs were supplied by the Soviet Union
ii. soon after the Soviets - who had been providing military and
economic assistance to Syria and Egypt - gave Damascus information
alleging a massive Israeli military buildup in preparation for an
attack
a. Israel denied this claim repeatedly
b. Syria decided to invoke a defense treaty with Egypt and asked
Nasser to come to its aid
D. Prewar
i. May 15, Israel's Independence Day, Egyptian troops began moving into
the Sinai and congregating near the Israeli border
ii. by May 18, Syrian troops were prepared for battle along the Golan
Heights
iii. May 16, Nasser ordered the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) that was
stationed in the Sinai since 1956 to withdraw
a. Secretary General U. Thant complied with the demand
b. Thant did not bring the matter to the attention of the General
Assembly like he was supposed to do
iv. May 22, Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to all Israeli shipping
and all ships traveling to Eilat
a. this cut off Israel's only supply route with Asia
b. it also stopped the flow of oil from Israel's main supplier, Iran
c. President Johnson, of the US, expressed the belief that the
blockade was illegal and tried unsuccessfully to test it
d. Johnson also advised Israel not to take any military action
v. Nasser challenged Israel to fight almost daily after the blockade
vi. May 30, King Hussein of Jordan signed a defense pact with Egypt
vii. President Abdur Rahman Aref of Iraq stated "The existence of
Israel is an error which be be rectified. This is our opportunity
to wipe out the ignoming which has been with us since 1948. Our
goal is clear - to wipe Israel off the map."
viii. June 4 Iraq joined the military alliance with Egypt, Jordan, and
Syria
ix. the Arab forces mobilized comprised of ~465,000 troops
i. more than 2,800 tanks
ii. 800 aircraft circled Israel
x. right before the war Johnson warned that "Israel will not be alone
unless it decided to go alone."
xi. Israel needed the element of surprise in order to win
a. June 5, the order was given to attack Egypt